“Tasty! Happy to see period gluten free
experimentation”
“Awesome
bread! Better than what I can buy in the
stores.”
“Want
to make a gluten free feast one day?”
“Thank
you so much – first baked good I’ve been able to try!!”
Me and My Pride and Joy!
Before...
...After!
Breadventures: Gluten-Free Bread in the Middle Ages
In
2005 I was diagnosed with celiac disease, which requires me to eat a
gluten-free diet. When I joined the SCA
a couple of years later I realized I would have to find safe ways to enjoy
feasts. At this point I had no idea this
would take me on a journey to medieval gluten-free bread, I just wanted to eat
dessert! So I began making gluten-free
treats to bring to events. Once people
tasted my gluten-free goodies and started asking how to make them I began to do
various classes on gluten-free feasting because it was obvious the interest was
there and I wanted people to know how to safely prepare it. My favourite thing to make is pies and
pastries because there are so many medieval fillings that are naturally
gluten-free. When I offered to teach a
class on how to make my gluten-free pastry I was challenged with the opinion
that offering a class on making gluten-free pastry was did not subscribe to
period cooking because it was a modern day recipe. I never taught that class, but that opinion
inspired me to de-bunk the myth that gluten-free cooking, especially baking,
was not within the parameters of the Middle Ages. With that in mind, I eventually developed a
plausibly gluten-free pie crust with oat flour.
I continued playing with more period dessert recipes and on April Fool’s
Day this year I ran an event called “Fool’s Paradise”…a dream I had had for
many years…with a dessert day-board and breakfast for dinner feast! 100%
gluten-free! Even then, throughout all
of these adventures, the idea of creating a medieval gluten-free bread seemed
entirely too outrageous and impossible.
But if you know me, you know I like a challenge.
I
don’t think I could have attempted medieval gluten-free bread until now because
my brain needed all of my adventures to teach me to think outside the
bread-box. I have learned that baking is
a science experiment and my kitchen is my laboratory. My adventures have brought me to research the
history of celiac disease, grains available in the Middle Ages and various
medieval baking practices. Most
important of all, I have learned how to look at things from a different
perspective and make my own deductions and discoveries beyond what has been
recorded in history. Just because there
is no extant evidence doesn’t mean it didn’t exist.
My Philosophy:
- If people of the Middle Ages were inspired to alter their diets for intolerance or other health reasons, it is plausible that the changes they made could have produced gluten-free options.
- As we experiment with recipes in modern times, so would those living in the Middle Ages.
- There were likely situations that created an environment that would have forced people to prepare food that contained grains other than those containing gluten.
Desired Goal in the
Final Product:
- My goal was not to re-create gluten-free bread into a close replica of gluten bread, but to invent gluten-free bread that could have been made in the Middle Ages that is edible even if it does not resemble general preconceived ideas of “bread”.
Plausible Scenario:
- Based on research and information gathered, I believe a plausible scenario is as follows: A man of nobility has found he feels ill after consuming the usual bread made for him so he challenges his staff to come up with something different for him to eat.
My Parameters:
- Recipes for bread were almost non-existent in the Middle Ages. I would have to make it up as I went along.
- Having little to no experience in baking regular gluten bread much less gluten-free bread, I would need to consult some modern day recipe books.
- I would not be able to use xanthan gum (the modern day gluten-free baking wonder ingredient) due to its non-existence in the Middle Ages and would have to find other binding agents.
- I would only be able to use gluten-free grains available in the Middle Ages.
- My final product would ideally avoid other gluten-free ingredients that tend to bother my stomach.
- Although experimenting with oven baked gluten-free bread I would like to have a bread that I could plausibly cook on the “stove-top” as would be available to me during SCA camping.
- No electric beaters would be used. Elbow grease is my beater.
- Ingredients such as water, milk, salt, honey, apple cider vinegar (common to gluten free baking) and fats would not be discussed in depth in a historical sense because the main focus is on grains, yeast, binding agents and method.
- My main focus would be on leavened bread with a little experimentation with flatbread.
Diet and Health
History:
Celiac
disease has been known for much longer than people realize. A Greco-Roman physician living in
approximately the 2nd Century AD, Areataeus of Cappadocia, wrote a
medical treatise entitled On the Causes
and Symptoms of Chronic Disease which included the first historical and
medical narrative of celiac disease. (Tekiner,
2015) Here is an excerpt from The Extant Works of Aretaeus, The
Cappadocian translated by Francis Adams in 1856: “Chapter VII: On the Coeliac Affection: The stomach being the digestive
organ, labours in digestion, when diarrhœa seizes the patient… and if this does
not proceed from a slight cause of only one or two days' duration; and if, in
addition, the patient's general system be debilitated by atrophy of the body,
the Cœliac disease of a chronic nature is formed.” (Aretaeus, circa 2nd
Century)
Diet and health were very closely
tied together in the Middle Ages. Food
was a main consideration for medieval physicians as they were involved in
making decisions on food preparation and were part of the staff for high
ranking people. (Scully, 1995)
Congruently, medieval cooks were not only knowledgeable about food, but also
familiar with the “humours” or well-being of the body. (Scully, 1995) Many manuscripts from the late Middle Ages
were medical treatises and recipe books combined evidenced by the well known The Forme of Cury from 1390 quoting “…copiled
by assent and avyssement of maistress phisik and of philosophie that dwelled in
his court…” (Scully, 1995) Loosley
translated
“…compiled by consent and deliberation of the masters of
medicine and of alchemy that dwelt in his (Richard II’s) court…”
Diet Alteration:
There is evidence that people in the
past have attempted to alter their diets due to food intolerance and
particularly celiac disease. In
2008, the skeleton of a young woman was discovered at the Cosa archaeological
site in Italy, which showed signs of celiac disease including DNA analysis of
the remains testing positive for a gene variant that is found in nearly all
celiac patients in modern populations. (Callaway, 2014) Analysis of carbon and nitrogen isotopes
related to food intake indicated that the woman likely ate more meat and
freshwater fish and fewer plants than other people living in the same area
which lead scientists to believe she may have been attempting to alter her own
diet to relieve symptoms. (Callaway, 2014)
There
are also many cases where social rank as well as change in environment forced
use of ingredients that were naturally gluten-free. For example, ergotism, a disease resulting
from rye grain infected with the ergot fungus, killed many people in the early
Middle Ages. (Adamson, 2004) Wheat
prices soared due to famine in 1314 and crop failure lead to famine and plague
in 1364. (Adamson, 2004) It has been recorded that the poor and
victims of famine would stretch their grain supply for bread by adding barley,
oats, beans, chestnuts, lentils, green beans, peas, sawdust, grass and
weeds. (Adamson, 2004) There were also accounts of bread made of
beans and peas called horsebread that would be fed to horses but would be eaten
by people as well. (Fjellman, 2004)
Types of Bread:
While
considering a gluten-free medieval bread invention, it is helpful to understand
that the bread of the Middle Ages was not one size fits all. Though
the most desired bread in the Middle Ages was considered white, it was actually
more cream coloured due to the wheat germ still being present, while in modern
white bread, the wheat germ is removed.
(Adamson, 2004) The types of bread available included: 1)
Pandemain/Paindemaigne (later called Manchet) which was the most desirable and
expensive, made with the best wheat flour and was white in colour, 2)
Wastel which was a good quality bread and remained white in colour,
3) Cocket which was an even cheaper
white bread, 4) Cheat which was whole wheat with the bran removed (no colour
mentioned), 5) Tourte contained husk as
well as flour and was brown, 6) Horsebread which was made of beans, peas and
any other grain and 7) Clapbread which was essentially barley bread or
oatcakes. (Newman, 2001, Adamson, 2004)
Recipes:
There
is little to no information on actual bread recipes from the Middle Ages. There are several reasons why this may have
occurred. Most extant medieval cookbooks that have
survived include names of ingredients but little information on quantities,
measurements, exact seasonings, temperatures, or cooking times. (Adamson, 2004) The process of bread making was not done by a
singular person; the farmer would grow the grain and bring it to miller who
would grind the grain who would bring the resulting flour to the baker who
would make the bread. (Matterer, 2000) The
common practice for nobles was to employ their own bakers. (Doves Farm Foods, 2017) Chefs, on the other hand, did not do the
baking, so recipes may not have been shared by the bakers to chefs in order to
make it into a cookbook. (Newman,
2001) Finally, making bread was such a
common act that recipes were more than likely passed among bakers and families
by mouth or by hands-on experience, “…making the recording of bread recipes as
writing down the recipe for boiling water.” (Newman, 2001)
Grains and Other
Ingredients for Flour
Wheat
may have been the most popular and esteemed flour in the Middle Ages but it
certainly wasn’t the only one used.
Other grains and ingredients included barley (not gluten-free), rye (not
gluten-free), oats (gluten-free if pure), peas, beans, lentils, green beans,
millet, rice, fava beans and chickpeas (garbanzo beans), almonds and other
nuts. (Adamson, 2004) Historically speaking, rice, which is a widely
used ingredient in gluten-free baking, has been around since early ancient
times, with Greeks and Romans using it not only in cooking, but also as a
medicinal use. (Adamson, 2004) Today, white rice flour is milled from
polished white rice while brown rice flour is milled from unpolished brown rice. (Hagman, 1999) Both types have a delicate
flavour. (Katzinger, 2012) Millet, a mild tasting grain, is part of the
grass family of rice and corn. (Hagman,
2004) It was cultivated in Europe before 2000BC with
Greeks and Romans using it for porridge or unleavened bread. (Adamson, 2004) It
has a good level of protein and gives lightness to bread. (Katzinger, 2012) Native to Europe, fava beans were eaten by
monks and were also consumed during Lentenfare. (Adamson, 2004) Chickpeas were particularly popular in the
Mediterranean regions of the Middle Ages. (Adamson, 2004) Chickpea or garbanzo bean flour adds fat
which adds moisture to a dough as well as protein. (Katzinger, 2012, Hagman, 1999) A mix of fava beans and garbanzo beans is today
called Garfava or Garbanzo and Fava flour.
(Hagman, 1999)
Yeast as a leavening agent has been around since ancient
Egyptian times even though the people did not understand how it worked. (Doves Farm, 2017) It was likely that the use of yeast was discovered
simply by accident, when people would leave dough paste to dry in the sun; wild yeast from the air likely combined with the
flour and water resulting in fermenting and dough rise. (Doves Farm, 2017) In medieval times, physicians actually believed
leavened bread to be more nutritious than unleavened bread. (Adamson, 2004) Eventually people learned how yeast works to
give rise to bread. Simply put, yeast
eats sugar and makes bubbles, giving lightness to bread. (Katzinger, 2012) Chemically speaking, yeast is a fungus that
reproduces quickly by the process of budding, where the yeast cell wall expands
until it detaches itself from the main cell creating a new cell and so on and
so forth. (Katzinger 2012) During the process of budding, yeast cells
produce enzymes that break down the sugars resulting in CO2 bubbles and small
amounts of ethanol which gives rise to bread. (Katzinger, 2012) The common type of yeast used in medieval
times was barm, which was a liquid yeast made by fermenting grain mash into
beer. (Newman, 2001) Considering that barm, (also known as
Brewer’s yeast), is not gluten-free, I turn to active dry yeast. Active dry yeast, a type of baker’s yeast,
uses cane molasses or beet molasses for its fermentation process which eventually
results in the collection of “cream yeast” that is then processed and dried to
create the yeast used most today. (Red Star Yeast, 2014-present)
Binding Agents
Binding
agents are key to the difference between an edible baked good and a rock. Gluten is magical. Found in grains such as wheat, barley, rye
and spelt, gluten is a blend of proteins attached to the endosperms of the
grain that, when combined with liquid, will bond, giving elasticity, air
pockets, shape and chewiness to the baked goods we love the most. (Katzinger, 2012) For many years, attempting to make
gluten-free baked goods, especially bread, would end in tears and a lot of
bread tossed in the trash. Giving
gluten-free baked goods some elasticity and body, xanthan gum came along to save
the day! Discovered in the 1950s and
commercially available in the 1960s, xanthan gum is the result of a bacterial
fermenting process that provides a slimy substance that is dried and ground
into a powder for use. (Oulton, 2014)
Alas, if I want to create the most authentic gluten-free medieval bread
possible, xanthan gum is too young on the baking scene for the job. There are, however, other binding agents that
can help. In fact, author and blogger
Shauna James Ahern rarely uses xanthan gum at all due to its tendency to be
hard to digest. (Ahern, 2005-2017) There
are several choices for alternatives to xanthan gum that were available in the
Middle Ages. Eggs are known for their
binding qualities. (Brady, 2016) Gelatin is another choice, adding protein
that combines with yeast to give elasticity.
(Hagman, 1999) In the Middle Ages
gelatin/gel was extracted from animal hooves, the skin of certain animals, and fish. (Adamson, 2004) A combination of ground chia seeds and ground
flax seeds combined with boiling water is a popular modern binder of
gluten-free baked goods. (Ahern,
2011) Though it has been around for
thousands of years, chia seeds are a New World ingredient, so it is not
eligible for my purposes. (Ahern,
2011) Flaxseed, on the other hand, also
being around for thousands of years, originated in Mesopotamia and was used
widely in ancient Roman and Greek gastronomy.
(McNamara, 2017) In the Middle Ages, flax was grown on
Charlemagne’s farms in 812. (Adamson, 2004)
Medically speaking, flax is known for its healthy properties; said by
the Greek physician, Hippocrates in 650, it was useful as a laxative and for
relief of mucous membrane inflammation, abdominal pain and diarrhea. (Umeze, 2001)
Methods
Though
my main purpose is to create gluten-free leavened bread it is important to
mention unleavened breads as well.
Earlier breads were mainly unleavened flatbreads. (Jack and Ruby, 2017) Most cooking within a typical household in
the Middle Ages would be done using an open fire; cast iron cauldrons set right
into the coals or hung over the fire were a common kitchen tool. (Adamson, 2004) Though there are different types, a common
flatbread from Scotland and Britain, called bannock, was generally made from
barley, oats, and water or buttermilk. (Davidson, 1999) It is thicker than an oatcake and larger than
a scone. (Davidson, 1999) It was first
cooked in the fire on a flat stone called a girdle (griddle in modern language). (Wells, 2009)
Although
unleavened bread remained a staple for most, leavened bread eventually came
into favour in the later Middle Ages. (Bayless,
2007) In lower class homes, bread could
be covered by an upturned pot and cooked on a griddle. (Jack and Ruby, 2014) Most baking ovens were not a household staple
as we enjoy today; at best there might
be a community oven available. (Adamson,
2004) As mentioned earlier, most people
would not even bake their own bread due to strict laws about bread-baking and
who was allowed to do it. (Matterer,
2000). Households of nobility, however,
would have the luxury of employing bakers within the household and be able to
enjoy leavened bread more easily. (Adamson, 2004)
When
it comes to the actual science in bread-making and its methods, most gluten
breads go through similar processes:
Ingredients are mixed, kneaded, left to rise, punched down, formed into
loaves, left to rise again, then baked in the oven. (Cunningham, 1979) When it comes to gluten-free bread…GOOD
gluten-free bread…the process is slightly different right from the
beginning. Ingredients are mixed, and
mixed well, but there is no kneading per se, mainly because the dough is not
like gluten dough in that it has more of a cake batter consistency making
kneading rather messy. (Hagman,
1999) When it comes to rising of the
dough, most commonly only one rising is done for most gluten-free recipes but author
of Gluten-Free and Vegan Bread, Jennifer
Katzinger doesn’t even leave the dough rise once before baking. (Katzinger, 2012). There is chemistry involved that explains the
reduced or no rise time. Gluten is a mix
of proteins that are attached to endosperms of grains such as wheat, barley,
rye and spelt and when combined with liquid, the proteins bond and become very
strong and resilient, resulting in “oven spring” of the final product.
(Katzinger, 2012) The protein bonds in
gluten-free dough are much less resilient and cannot handle too much
rising. (Katzinger, 2012) Once in the oven, the heat causes the feeding
process of the yeast to accelerate and eventually die. (Katzinger, 2012) Gluten dough is strong enough to hold up the
bread when this happens but gluten-free dough is not. (Hagman, 1999) Gluten-free dough relies solely on the yeast
activity in the oven to create oven spring; if the yeast has already done most
of its work during rise time on the counter, it will die faster. (Katzinger, 2012) Over-proofing of gluten-free dough will
result in a crumpled, shrunken loaf that comes out of the oven crumbly and
dry. (Hangman, 1999)
Other
considerations when it comes to making bread are the oven temperature, the fact
that every oven is different, air temperature, and humidity. All of these things can change how your bread
behaves. As in medieval times, no exact
rising or baking time can produce exactly the same results every time.
My Personal Journey:
For
this project I have tried over 30 different recipes using various combinations
of ingredients and methods. Since the
first recipe started off on a whim, I did not have all the information I needed
at the beginning so my education was ongoing through research, by accident, and
through trial and error. The following
is a condensed report of the test bakes with note on changes I made during the
process to arrive at my final recipe.
Please refer to my addendum Breadventures
Notes for in depth descriptions of each recipe and the results as I made
them.
- # 0.5: no photos. Initial recipe was thrown together on a whim with no leavening agents and using oat flour alone
- Group A: # 1, 2, 3. Started to use yeast. Started to use different combinations of flours including millet, garbanzo/fava, brown rice, and white rice. Still using non-gluten free methods.
- Group B: # 4, 5, 6. Oat flour eliminated. Concluded garbanzo/fava flour gives the best taste and started to think it helped the loaf overall. Various combinations of liquids (including almond milk) and flours. Tried baking bread in ramekins instead of on a baking sheet.
- Group C: # 7, 8. Omitted the idea of ramekins since they didn’t work out in Group B. Attempted using almond milk again. Changed combinations of flours.
- Group D: #9, 10. Almond milk was omitted due to no real difference and stomach upset. Tried a buttermilk mix (milk and apple cider vinegar)
- Group E: # 11, 12. Omitted milk and went back to water. Added butter.
- Group F: #13. It was here when I turned to research specifically on gluten-free bread baking to see if I could figure out what I was missing. It was at this point I tried no rise time at all. Results were rock hard.
- Group G: # 14, 15. Finally a turnaround! I decided to include at least one rising as most gluten-free cookbooks seemed to use this method. No punching down of dough. Mixing really well by hand. Results were getting better in taste and spring but still somewhat crumbly and dry. It was also at this time I arrived at my favourite flour mix of 1/3 garbanzo/fava flour, 1/3 millet flour and 1/3 white rice flour.
- Group H: # 16, 17. Using my mother’s method of making steam pudding I decided to start “baking” loaves by steaming in a stove-top pan. This method would work great for “baking” at camp events too. I compared it to a baked loaf and liked the steamed version better.
- Group I: # 18, 19. Still wanting to increase moisture I added oil and butter. Played a little more with steam timings. Started measuring final temperature of loaves to be around 200-210 F. Getting better.
- Group J: # 20, 21. Quality of the final product, especially moisture, was still bothering me. Knowing xanthan gum helps with modern gluten-free baking I researched alternative binding agents that would be available in the Middle Ages. Ground flax and eggs were tried. Also accidentally omitted salt for the next few recipes. A steamed version and a baked version were tried. The steamed version was better but still a little dry.
- Group K: # 22. Figured out that I should mix the ground flax with water before adding to the mixture. Eggs were omitted because I didn’t think they made a difference. This would bring me to recipe #22 which turned out to be a real difference in taste, texture and especially moisture compared to all previous loaves. These were also the first loaves that were edible on the second day after baking.
- Group L: #23. As I had read that gelatin could be a useful binder for gluten-free breads, I tried it. Turned out very crumbly.
- Group M: # 24, 25, 26. I went back to the flax/water mixture for binding agents. Decided to add in more period fats…tried bacon fat and store bought lard. Finally realized I had forgotten salt in the last few recipes so added that back in. Also compared a baked loaf to a steamed loaf again. Steamed remained to be best but the baked loaf was nice straight from the oven for its crustiness…however drier than the steamed version. Both were still not rivalling #22.
- Group N: # 27. Considering the only real difference between #22 and the loaves made after it was the salt, I decided to reduce the salt in #27. Results were the best of all. This is my magic final leavened bread recipe!
- Group O: # 28, 29, 30, 31. I wanted to at least try a couple of unleavened flatbread recipes so tried one with oats and one with my mix of flours. They were great right out of the frying pan but nothing like the leavened versions and certainly did not have much longevity in edibleness.
*So
far results in all groups were mostly crumbly, dry and heavy. I was still using the original process of two
risings including a punching down step.
I knew for sure that garbanzo/fava flour was working well and tasting
good so it would stay in my recipes.
Final Product: Isolda's Gluten-Free Leavened
Medieval Bread Recipe:
2
tablespoons lard, melted
1
tablespoon honey
1
teaspoon yeast
¼
cup + 2 tablespoons hot water
¼
cup hot water
1/8
teaspoon salt
2
oz garbanzo/fava flour
2
oz millet flour
2
oz rice flour
1
oz ground flax
Method:
Mix
garbanzo/fava, millet and rice flours together with salt in a bowl. In a separate bowl, mix melted lard with ¼
cup + 2 tablespoons of hot water and stir in the ground flax. Meanwhile, mix the honey with the hot water
and sprinkle the yeast over it and stir a little. Let stand for about 5 minutes. Stir the flax mixture with the yeast mixture
together then add to the dry ingredients.
Beat with a fork or spoon until the mixture comes together and for as long
as your arms can stand mixing. Place
into a parchment lined metal dish, cover lightly with plastic wrap and let rise
for approximately 40 minutes. On the
stovetop, prepare a pot with a pressure cooker rack (metal sieve with holes in
it), a sieve that will fit in the bottom of your pot or simply crumple up some
aluminum foil to make a place for your baking bowl to sit on. Pour enough water in so that it will come up
about a quarter of the way up the side of your baking bowl when the bowl is set
in and bring to boil. Remove the plastic
wrap from the baking bowl and cover it securely with aluminum foil. Place bowl in prepared pot, cover and steam
for about 60 minutes. Remove from dish
and place onto a cooling rack, cover lightly with a tea towel and let rest for
10-20 minutes before cutting.
CONCLUSIONS:
My
ultimate goal was not to re-create gluten-free bread into a close replica of
gluten bread, but to invent gluten-free bread that could have been made in the
Middle Ages and is edible even if it does not resemble general preconceived
ideas of “bread”. I believe I achieved what
I set out to do. No, my gluten-free
medieval bread loaf is not the fluffy pull-apart white bread that we know and
love today. It is, however, a perfectly
edible masterpiece (yes, I’m a little bias) of experimental baking that I would
be happy to serve at a feast.
If
not the cause, the symptoms and health problems of celiac disease have been
known well before modern days with extant evidence of diet alteration. Furthermore, with diet and medicine being so
closely related in medieval times, it seems plausible that diets could have
been altered for at least higher ranks of population. Even high ranking individuals would not be
able to escape the crises of illness, famine and crop failure. Experimentation with different ingredients
would be a necessity. With these things
in mind I believe my scenario of a nobleman asking his staff (which would
include his physician, cook and baker) to make him a different kind of bread is
completely plausible. With all the
different gluten-free grains and other naturally gluten-free ingredients
available in the Middle Ages it is very possible that people were eating
gluten-free bread like mine without knowing anything about celiac disease.
As
for my methods, results, and overall experience, though I am a huge fan of using
modern day gluten-free ingredients, recipes and even store bought items to make
gluten-free feasting more enjoyable, I have to say that it feels very
satisfying to de-bunk some modern medieval myths by using period ingredients
and methods to create plausibly medieval gluten-free bread. Despite the number of times I trialed
different recipes and the amount of inedible gluten-free bread that was tossed,
as my Mum always used to say, “There are no failures in this kitchen!” because
I learned a lot and I’m sure I could learn more. In the end, my creation of a medieval
gluten-free bread recipe turned out to be not so impossible or outrageous at
all. But for now, I’m sick of tasting bread for a little while!
REFERENCES
Adams, Francis. (translator) Extant
Works of Aretaeus thef Cappadocian By Aretaeus the Cappadocian: Aretaeus,
The Cappadocian, on the Causes and Symptoms of Chronic Disease Book 1. Translated from Latin to English
1856. Accessed on Digital Hippocrates
website: http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/dh/aretaeusEnglish/page.102.a.php?size=240x320 Accessed July 16, 2017.
Adamson,
Melitta Weis. Food In Medieval Times c2004, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. Pages x, xii, xiii, xiv, xvii-xix, and Pages
2, 3, 5, 6, 24-25, 56, 58, 88, 90, 92, and 173.
Ahern,
Shauna James. Chia Seeds and Flax Seeds. https://glutenfreegirl.com/2011/02/chia-seeds-and-flaxseeds/. Gluten-Free Girl c2005-2017.
Ahern,
Shauna James. A Guide to Gluten-Free Baking. https://glutenfreegirl.com/a-guide-to-gluten-free-baking/ Gluten-Free Girl c2005-2017.
Bayless,
Martha. How to Make Everyday Anglo-Saxon
Bread: Version 2 (Hearthcakes or “Kichells”). May 13, 2007. The Early English Bread Project. https://earlybread.wordpress.com/
Accessed online July 18, 2017.
Brady,
C.J. How
to Make Gluten Free Bread Without Xanthan Gum.
Gluten Free Bread http://gluten-free-bread.org/how-to-make-gluten-free-bread-without-xanthan-gum
c2016.
Accessed July 16 2017.
Cunningham,
Marion. The Fannie Farmer Cookbook. c1979. Fannie Farmer Cookbook Corporation.
New York, NY. Pages 717-720.
Davidson,
Alan.
The Oxford Companion to Food. c1999. Oxford, New York. Page 61
Doves
Farm. The History of Bread. Doves
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c 2017. Doves Farm Foods Ltd.
Company. Accessed online July 16, 2017.
Fjellman,
Lynda.
Horsebread: A findings paper on making medieval horse
feed. c2004. http://ilaria.veltri.tripod.com/horsebread.html
Accessed online July 16, 2017.
Hagman, Bette. The
Gluten-Free Gourmet Bakes Bread. c1999,
Hold Paperbacks, NY, NY. Pages 12-14,
27, 29, and 30.
Hagman, Bette. The
Gluten-Free Gourmet Cooks Comfort Foods.
c2004. Henry Hold and Company NY
NY. Page 23.
Jack
and Ruby.
St. Patrick’s Day Bread. March 18, 2014. https://breadjr.wordpress.com/category/early-medieval-bread/
Blog at wordpress accessed online July 16 2017.
Katzinger, Jennifer. Gluten-Free
and Vegan Bread. c2012. Sasquatch Books,
Seattle. Pages xix, xxi, xxii and Pages
3, 4-6, and 8.
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